Global coup politics: whom has the United States overthrown?

In the second half of the 20th century and the early 21st century, one of the most controversial aspects of US foreign policy has been its direct or indirect involvement in changes of power in other countries. Official Washington has often justified these actions as efforts to “defend democracy,” “support human rights,” or “neutralize security threats.” However, historical experience with the overthrow or removal of foreign leaders by the United States shows a serious gap between the values declared in foreign policy rhetoric and actual practice. Democracy and human rights have frequently been used as instruments, while the underlying objectives have been geopolitical dominance, access to resources, and regional control.

Today, Venezuelan President Nicolás Maduro, who had governed the country for more than 12 years, was reportedly overthrown in a three-hour operation and taken to the United States. The incident sparked wide debate within the international community. Maduro’s detention once again highlighted examples of how the United States has directly or indirectly influenced the political destinies of various countries over recent decades. On January 3, 2020, Donald Trump ordered the killing of Iranian General Qasem Soleimani, and on January 3, 2026, Trump reportedly ordered the arrest of Venezuelan President Nicolás Maduro. These are not the first high-level figures killed or removed through US intervention.

QALAMPIR.UZ presents a list of leaders throughout history whose removal involved the United States. It should be noted that in some cases Washington acted through open military intervention, while in others it relied on political, economic, and diplomatic mechanisms.

Mohammad Mossadegh (Iran)

In the early 1950s, Mohammad Mossadegh, a democratically elected politician who viewed Iranian sovereignty, economic independence, and parliamentary supremacy as core values, was overthrown in 1953 as a result of a coup supported by US and British intelligence services. This case is considered a classic example of US influence on regime change through covert operations. The key reason behind Mossadegh’s removal was his decision to nationalize Iran’s oil industry. In 1951, he nationalized the British-controlled Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC, later BP), ending its lucrative monopoly. Most of the profits had gone to the United Kingdom, while Iran received only a minimal share. Mossadegh regarded this arrangement as a continuation of colonial exploitation.

Unable to intervene militarily, Britain imposed an oil embargo on Iran, pressured countries purchasing Iranian oil, and filed lawsuits against Iran in international courts.

Initially, the United States maintained a neutral stance toward Mossadegh. However, the situation changed in the early 1950s. In 1953, the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and the British intelligence service MI6 jointly organized a covert coup. In March 1953, a plan known as TP-Ajax, or “Operation Ajax,” was developed by the CIA and MI6. Its primary objective was to force Mossadegh to resign by inciting public unrest.

US and British intelligence services established close ties with groups opposed to Mossadegh’s government. After millions of dollars in bribes were distributed, these groups intensified public dissatisfaction with the authorities, triggering unrest across the country. Hundreds of people were killed as a result of the clashes.

At the time, the pro-Western Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi sought to remove Mossadegh and appointed General Fazlollah Zahedi in his place. In response, Mossadegh’s supporters took to the streets, forcing the Shah to flee first to Iraq and then to Rome. This initial attempt to overthrow Mossadegh failed.

However, several months later, generals arrested Mossadegh, his ministers, and his supporters under the pretext of restoring order. Three days later, the Shah returned to Iran. In this way, the United States and Britain succeeded in overthrowing the democratically elected Mossadegh government, which had come to power through popular demand, nationalized oil resources, and sought to strengthen democracy through reforms.

After the coup, Mossadegh was accused of treason, sentenced to three years in prison, and spent the final years of his life under house arrest. He died in 1967 while still under house arrest.

Salvador Allende (Chile)

In 1973, Chilean President Salvador Allende was overthrown in a military coup led by General Augusto Pinochet. Although the United States did not carry out the coup directly, Washington’s political and intelligence support has been widely described by international sources as indirect involvement.

Allende was Chile’s first democratically elected socialist president. His nationalization policies, particularly the takeover of mines owned by US companies, met strong resistance from the business community and conservative elites. Parliament adopted numerous resolutions and blockades against Allende’s government in an effort to halt its economic and political reforms.

In the early months of his presidency, Allende emphasized the importance of building a socialist society in Chile. Wealthy individuals’ property was expropriated, and strict state control over the population was introduced. Under Allende’s orders, children under the age of 15 and mothers of newborns received half a liter of milk per day. Wages for the lowest-paid workers were doubled. Sanctions against foreign companies operating in Chile were expanded, and the transfer of local companies to state control accelerated. The opening of the Cuban embassy in Chile in 1970, at a time when Cuba was viewed by the United States as an active socialist adversary during the Cold War, further strained relations with Washington. This contributed to increased US political and economic involvement, laying the groundwork for the 1973 military coup.

Against the backdrop of claims, supported by US intelligence, that socialist policies threatened Chile’s economic stability and national security, Salvador Allende was overthrown in a military coup led by General Augusto Pinochet in 1973. During a large-scale assault on the presidential palace, Allende died, and the circumstances of his death became the subject of controversy. Military officials claimed he committed suicide, while others argued that he was killed and the suicide was staged. In 1990, his body was exhumed and reburied in a state funeral in Santiago. As part of investigations into crimes committed under the Pinochet regime, Allende’s remains were exhumed again in May 2011 for a scientific autopsy, which confirmed that he had taken his own life.

Manuel Noriega (Panama)

The case most historically similar to that of Nicolás Maduro is linked to Manuel Noriega, the de facto dictator of Panama. In 1989, US forces launched a direct military operation in Panama. Noriega was overthrown, taken to the United States, and sentenced to a lengthy prison term on drug trafficking charges. This was one of the rare instances in which the United States tried a foreign leader on its own territory. The operation was justified by Washington as necessary to protect US citizens in Panama, combat undemocratic practices, corruption, and illegal drug trafficking.

Initially, Noriega was regarded as a “strategic partner” of the United States, particularly during the Cold War, when he received US support in opposing communist movements in Central America. At the same time, he was widely known for his involvement in drug trafficking and corruption.

The US military operation in Panama was considered the largest US combat operation since the Vietnam War. The US government cited various justifications for the intervention, including the goal of improving the situation for Panamanians by bringing Noriega to justice on drug charges.

Noriega had been indicted by US courts on drug trafficking charges even while still in power. Following the military operation, he was captured and taken to the United States to stand trial.

Similarly, Nicolás Maduro has faced accusations of “narco-terrorism” by the United States and was reportedly detained following US actions.

Manuel Noriega was extradited to Miami, convicted in 1992, and sentenced to 40 years in prison. He served approximately 17 years in US federal prison.

In 2010, he was extradited to France on money laundering charges and sentenced to seven years. In 2011, he was returned to Panama to serve a sentence for murder charges and remained under house arrest until his death in 2017.

Saddam Hussein (Iraq)

In 2003, Saddam Hussein was overthrown in Iraq by a US-led coalition. He was later captured, tried, and executed. This marked one of the most explicit examples of direct US military intervention aimed at regime change. Although Washington justified the operation by citing “security concerns” and the threat of weapons of mass destruction, subsequent developments revealed how controversial these claims were.

During the early years of Saddam Hussein’s rule, the United States viewed Iraq as a counterbalance to Iran following the Islamic Revolution. In the 1980s, Washington provided indirect political and intelligence support to Saddam’s regime.

However, Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in 1990 completely derailed relations. A US-led coalition liberated Kuwait but left Saddam in power. Iraq then endured more than a decade of severe sanctions.

Following the September 11, 2001 attacks, US foreign policy underwent a dramatic shift. President George W. Bush’s administration introduced the concept of the “axis of evil,” portraying Iraq as a threat to international security. US officials claimed that Saddam Hussein was developing weapons of mass destruction, maintaining ties with terrorist groups, and systematically violating UN resolutions.

In March 2003, a US- and UK-led coalition launched a military invasion of Iraq without explicit authorization from the UN Security Council. Within weeks, Baghdad fell, state institutions collapsed, and Saddam Hussein was removed from power. The United States described the operation as the “liberation of Iraq.”

After the invasion, Saddam Hussein went into hiding. He was captured by US forces near Tikrit in December 2003. He was later tried by an Iraqi court operating under US oversight, found guilty of crimes against humanity, and executed in 2006.

Muammar Gaddafi (Libya)

During the events in Libya in 2011, NATO and US air operations played a decisive role in the collapse of the Gaddafi regime. Although Gaddafi was not directly arrested by the United States, international intervention paved the way for his removal from power. This is considered a form of indirect military involvement.

The 2011 events in Libya became one of the most violent and tragic chapters of the Arab Spring in the Middle East and North Africa. Muammar Gaddafi, who had ruled the country for nearly 42 years, was overthrown and killed. Western military and political intervention, led by the United States and NATO, played a crucial role in this outcome.

Gaddafi came to power in 1969 through a military coup and established a unique political system in Libya known as the “Jamahiriya.” He opposed Western influence, nationalized the oil industry, and viewed the United States as a primary regional rival.

In the 1980s and 1990s, Gaddafi was labeled by the United States as a leader who supported terrorism. Libya was subjected to sanctions, and US airstrikes targeted Tripoli in 1986.

In the 2000s, Gaddafi temporarily sought rapprochement with the West, abandoned nuclear and chemical weapons programs, sanctions were lifted, and diplomatic relations were restored. However, this rapprochement did not last.

In 2011, public protests in Tunisia and Egypt spread to Libya. What began as demonstrations demanding social and political reforms quickly escalated into armed conflict. Gaddafi labeled the opposition as “armed rebels” and “puppets of foreign powers” and ordered the use of military force, drawing strong condemnation from the international community.

At the initiative of the United States, France, and the United Kingdom, NATO launched airstrikes. While Washington officially stated that it did not deploy ground troops, its involvement through intelligence, logistics, and military technology accelerated the collapse of the Gaddafi regime.

In October 2011, Muammar Gaddafi was captured near the city of Sirte and killed shortly thereafter. His extrajudicial killing was sharply criticized by human rights organizations.

While Western leaders described the event as a “victory for the Libyan people,” many analysts argued that the intervention violated international law. Instead of stability, the country descended into deeper chaos.

Following Gaddafi’s overthrow, peace and stability were not established in Libya. On the contrary, state institutions collapsed, armed groups proliferated, and the country fractured into multiple centers of power.

Viktor Yanukovych (Ukraine)

Between 2010 and 2014, Ukraine under Viktor Yanukovych faced a strategic dilemma between aligning with Russia or the European Union. In November 2013, Yanukovych’s refusal to sign an association agreement with the EU triggered mass protests across the country. Following his decision, demonstrations by supporters of European integration began in Kyiv and other cities. This movement, later known as “Euromaidan,” brought together tens of thousands of people. Clashes between protesters and security forces resulted in fatalities, and the unrest continued to escalate.

Western countries, particularly the United States, established diplomatic contacts with Euromaidan activists. Through diplomatic statements and financial assistance, the West expressed support for democratic demands. Some sources, including WikiLeaks and investigative journalism reports, suggest that US diplomats provided political advice in Ukraine. Nevertheless, Yanukovych’s removal from power was largely driven by internal factors. Mass protests and parliamentary decisions significantly reduced his ability to remain in office.

In February 2014, as protests intensified, Viktor Yanukovych fled Ukraine for Russia following a parliamentary vote. While his removal was primarily the result of internal political and social dynamics, Western diplomatic and financial support also played a role. This event marked a significant turning point in Ukraine’s history in terms of democracy and public political participation.

Nicolás Maduro (Venezuela)

Today, January 3, a strike was reported in Venezuela’s capital, Caracas. At least seven explosions were reported, leaving parts of the city without electricity. Explosion sounds were heard in various districts, including near Simón Bolívar International Airport in Maiquetía and the port of La Guaira.

Shortly afterward, Colombian President Gustavo Petro accused the United States of bombing Venezuela and called for an emergency meeting of the United Nations. CBS later reported that US President Donald Trump had ordered strikes on several targets in Venezuelan territory, including military facilities.

Venezuelan President Nicolás Maduro ordered the immediate activation of a nationwide defense system and the mobilization of national forces. A state of emergency was declared across the country.

Later, Donald Trump issued a statement claiming that Nicolás Maduro and his wife had been detained and removed from the country. Following this announcement, Russia condemned the US attack on Venezuela.

US Secretary of State Marco Rubio stated that the military operation in Venezuela served as a cover to capture Maduro. He said that Nicolás Maduro had been detained by US representatives with the intention of prosecuting him in the United States.

However, Venezuela’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs and several representatives of the international community argued that the true aim of the attack was to seize Venezuela’s strategic resources, particularly its oil and minerals. The ministry described the actions as an attempt to forcibly undermine the country’s political independence.